18- ESSENTIAL WINDOWS ACCESSORIES

The Accessories folder, accessible through the Windows Start menu, is location to multiple useful application programs. These programs include Calculator, Notepad, Paint, WordPad, Character map, Snipping tool, Remote Desktop Connection, and various System utilities software. Where the Accessories folder is located, and the programs found in that folder, depends on your version of Windows. Older versions of Windows include the Accessories folder, while newer versions of Windows do not, but the programs previously in that folder are still available.

Apart from above mentioned applications, Windows has a few tools for Ease of Access and some System Tools. We’ll be briefly talking about them here.

CALCULATOR:

Windows Calculator is a calculating application included in all the versions of Windows. It can be used to perform simple calculation, scientific calculation and Programming calculation.

For starting calculator program, take the following steps:

• Click on Start Button.
• Drag mouse pointer on All program option.
• Drag the mouse pointer on Accessories option.
• Click on Notepad program. The program appears on the screen.

From View menu choose the required type of calculator:

Standard, Scientific, Programmer, Statistical

Calculator was first included with Windows 1.0 as a simple arithmetic calculator. In Windows 3.0, a Scientific mode was added, which included exponents and roots, logarithms, factorial-based functions, trigonometry (supports radian, degree and gradians angles), base conversions (2, 8, 10, 16), logic operations, Statistic functions such as single variable statistics and linear regression.

In Windows 7, separate Programmer, Statistics, Unit Conversion, Date Calculation, and Worksheets modes were added. Calculator’s interface was revamped for the first time since its introduction.

On the right of the main Calculator, one can add a panel with Date Calculation, Unit Conversion, and Worksheets. The included Worksheets allow one to calculate a result of a chosen field based on the values of other fields. Pre-defined templates include calculating a car’s fuel economy (mpg and L/100 km), a vehicle lease, and a mortgage. In pre-beta versions of Windows 7, Calculator also provided a Wages template.

NOTEPAD:

Notepad is a basic text editor that you can use to create simple documents. It hasn't really changed much even though all other standard Windows tools were upgraded with each new version. The most common use for Notepad is to view or edit text(.txt) files, but many users find Notepad a simple tool for creating Web pages.

Notepad supports only very basic formatting, you can not accidentally save special formatting in documents that need to remain pure text. This is especially useful when creating HTML documents.

To start the Notepad program, take the following steps:

• Click on Start Button.
• Drag mouse pointer on All program option.
• Drag the mouse pointer on Accessories option.
• Click on Notepad program. The program appears on the screen.

PAINT:

Microsoft Paint is a simple raster graphics editor that has been included with all versions of Microsoft Windows. The program opens and saves files in Windows bitmap (BMP), JPEG, GIF, PNG, and single-page TIFF formats. The program can be in color mode or two-color black-and-white, but there is no grayscale mode. For its simplicity and that it is included with Windows, it rapidly became one of the most used applications in the early versions of Windows, introducing many to painting on a computer for the first time. It is still widely used for simple image manipulation tasks.

To start the Paint program, take the following steps:

• Click on Start Button.
• Drag mouse pointer on All program option.
• Drag the mouse pointer on Accessories option.
• Click on Paint program. The program appears on the screen.

CHARACTER MAP:

Character Map is a free utility available in all Windows operating systems for inserting special symbols, accented letters or foreign-language characters into any Windows-based application. Character Map is a useful utility program, especially when dealing with word-processing programs like Microsoft Word.

Character Map is useful in many ways. For one, most special characters need not be assigned on the keyboard and can be found in the Character Map. Therefore, a special keyboard is not necessary. Character Map is especially useful in the case of foreign languages, and for certain symbols used in mathematics or word processing.

To start the Character map program, take the following steps:

• Click on Start Button.
• Drag mouse pointer on All program option.
• Drag the mouse pointer on Accessories option.
• Click on System tools option.
• Click on Character map program. The program appears on the screen.

WORD PAD:

WordPad is the basic word processor that has been included with almost all versions of Microsoft Windows. WordPad can format and print text, including font and bold, italic, colored, and centered text, and lacks functions such as a spell checker, thesaurus, and control of pagination. It does not support footnotes and endnotes. WordPad can read, render, and save many Rich Text Format (RTF) features that it cannot create, such as tables, strikeout, superscript, subscript, "extra" colors, text background colors, numbered lists, right and left indentation, quasi-hypertext and URL linking etc.

To start the Paint program, take the following steps:

• Click on Start Button.
• Drag mouse pointer on All program option.
• Drag the mouse pointer on Accessories option.
• Click on WordPad program. The program appears on the screen.

DISK CLEAN-UP:

Disk Clean-up (cleanmgr.exe) is a computer maintenance utility included in Microsoft Windows designed to free up disk space on a computer's hard drive. The utility first searches and analyzes the hard drive for files that are no longer of any use, and then removes the unnecessary files. There are a number of different file categories that Disk Clean-up targets when performing the initial disk analysis:

• Compression of old files
• Temporary Internet files
• Temporary Windows files
• Downloaded program files
• Recycle Bin
• Removal of unused applications or optional Windows components
• Setup log files
• Offline web pages (cached)
• WinSxS (Windows component store)
• Compress Old files
• System error dump files
• Temporary Internet files

The above list, however, is not exhaustive. For instance, Temporary Remote Desktop files and Temporary Sync Files, may appear only under certain computer configurations, differences such as Windows Operating System and use of additional programs such as Remote Desktop. The option of removing hibernation data may not be ideal for some users as this may remove the hibernate option.

To start the Disk Clean-up program, take the following steps:

• Click on Start Button.
  
• Drag mouse pointer on All program option.
• Drag the mouse pointer on Accessories option.
• Click on System tools option.
  
  
  
• Click on Disk Clean-up program. The first dialog box appears on the screen.
• Select drive from them like 'C:'.
• Click Ok. The second window appears on the screen.
• Click on Check box to select the temporary files list.
• Click Ok. The third screen appears on the screen.
• Click Delete button.

SYSTEM TIME:

System time is facility of computer for current time and date that the computer system keeps track of so that applications running on the system have ready access to accurate time. Most computer systems base their system time on the current time in relation to Greenwich, England, which is called the coordinated universal time (UTC), and each time zone is designated as being ahead or behind by a specific number of hours.

If the date and time is resetting to an old date or the wrong time, the CMOS battery is bad and needs to be replaced.

If you are using Windows on a virtual machine, change the date and time on the host machine, not the virtual machine. The virtual machine gets the current date and time information from the host.

CHANGE DATE AND TIME:

In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, follow these steps to adjust the date and time:

• Press Windows key+D or navigate to the Windows desktop.
• Click or tap the date and time in the Windows Notification Area in the bottom-right corner of the screen.
• Select Change date and time settings.
• In the Date and Time window, under the Date and Time tab, click the Change date and time button.
• Make your adjustments and click OK.
• Click OK on the Date and Time window to save the changes.

Windows 8:

• Click or tap the date and time in the Windows Notification Area in the bottom-right corner of the screen.
• Select Change date and time settings.
• In the Date and Time window, under the Date and Time tab, click the Change date and time button.
• Make your adjustments and click OK.
• Click OK on the main Date and Time window to save the changes.

Windows 10:

• Right-click or tap the date and time in the Windows Notification Area in the bottom-right corner of the screen.
• Click Adjust date/time.
• Make sure your Time zone is set properly if your computer is displaying the wrong time.
• To manually adjust the time, turn off the Set time automatically option, then click the Change button.
• Change the date or time as desired, then click the Change button.

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17- MICROSOFT WINDOWS

MS Windows is a graphical operating system and GUI based developed by Microsoft Corporation. It allows users to view and store files, run the software, play games, watch videos, and provides a way to connect to the internet. It was released for both home computing and professional works.

Microsoft Windows was first announced by Bill Gates on November 10, 1983. Microsoft introduced Windows as a graphical user interface for MS-DOS, which had been introduced two years earlier. The product line evolved in the 1990s from an operating environment into a fully complete, modern operating system over two lines of development, each with their own separate codebase.

The MS-Windows is the most common operating system in the world. It is the world's  largest selling OS for PCs. There are many Windows version available in the market. I provide Windows version their period given below:

Years                                                   Versions

1985                                                    Windows 1.0

1987                                                     Windows 2.0

1990                                                    Windows 3.0

1993                                                    Windows 3.1

1995                                                    Windows 95

1997                                                    Windows 97

1998                                                    Windows 98

2000                                                    Windows 2000, Me, NT

2002                                                    Windows XP-I

2003                                                    Windows XP-II

2004                                                    Windows XP-III

2006                                                    Windows Vista

2009                                                    Windows 7

2012                                                    Windows 8

2015                                                    Windows 10

2021                                                    Windows 11

More topics:

15-Operating System

12-Introduction of Computer

4- Evolution of Computer

11-Computer Languages 

13- Computer Virus

 

   Functions of windows:

In an operating system software performs each of the function:

1. Process management:- Process management helps OS to create and delete processes. It also provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication among processes. 
2. Memory management:- Memory management module performs the task of allocation and de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of this resources. 
3. File management:- It manages all the file-related activities such as organization storage, retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files. 
4. Security:- Security module protects the data and information of a computer system against malware threat and authorized access. 
5. Command interpretation: This module is interpreting commands given by the user and acting system resources to process that commands. 
6. Job accounting: Keeping track of time & resource used by various job and users. 
7. Communication management: Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, and another software resource of the various users of the computer systems.

Features of windows:

• Allows the user to interact with the computer (through the keyboard, mouse, microphone, etc.).
• Controls the storage of data (images, files, music).
• Controls hardware attached to the computer such as webcams, scanners and printers.
• Helps to open and close programs (word processors, games, photo editors, etc.), and gives them part of the computer’s memory to allow them to work.
• Controls what access to a computer different users have and the computer's security.
• Deals with errors and user instructions, and issues simple error messages.
• Promotes multitasking by allowing the user to do several things on the computer at once – for example, watch a video while writing a letter.

After going through all the components, Features and the wide Introduction to Windows, we are going to explore the advantages of Windows.

Advantage of windows:

Let us see some advantages:

• Desktop as well as tablet-friendly OS.
• Switch between applications is very easy.
• Not much technical knowledge is required to operate windows.
• Windows OS is the dominant OS and enjoys more than 90% of Market share
• MS windows have a great support community and it also has the largest number of applications.
• Microsoft provides a powerful set of Enterprise focused Operating System, Applications and the services making it the most dominant player in the OS market.
• More gaming.

Components of windows:

Windows consists of the following components:

• Desktop:

The desktop is the very first screen we see after windows start. Here, we can see folders like My Computer, Documents, etc. It is the main working area of many of your computer operations. You keep your special files on the desktop so you can access them easily and it gives access to other important functionalities as well such as search bar, taskbar, and file explorer.

• Taskbar:

The taskbar is a simple row at the very bottom of the screen where all currently opened files or applications are listed. It helps you select what you want to keep opened and what you want to close.

• Start Menu:

By clicking the start menu, in the bottom left corner of the screen, a vertical window consisting of the recently opened applications and saved locations will pop-up. Although the Start Menu was a major component of Windows before Windows 8, It was removed from Windows 8 and then brought back in Windows 10. Some start menu items given below:

All programs: All Programs command is the most important function of the Start menu. It’s the master list of every program on your computer. We see all programs that installed in a computer. 

Pictures: Pictures is a folder in the Microsoft Windows operating system that is used to store picture files. By default, when any picture is created or added to a Windows computer, they are saved in the Pictures folder. 

Documents: The Documents folder is a component of the user profile that is used as a unified location for storing personal data. By default, the Documents folder is a folder in the user's profile that is used as a default storage location for saved documents.

Music: Pictures is a folder in the Microsoft Windows operating system that is used to store picture files. By default, when any picture is created or added to a Windows computer, they are saved in the Pictures folder.

Games: This folder tries to act as your central repository for games in Windows. All the Windows games are found there as well as most of the third-party games you install. However, not all games you install might be found there as they might not be integrated with this feature of Windows.You can add games to this panel.

Control Panel: You can use Control Panel to change settings of Windows. These settings tools control nearly everything about how Windows looks and works, and you can use them to set up Windows so that it's just better using computer for you.

Devices and Printers: Device and Printers gives you a simple way to access and manage external devices (including printers, scanners, faxes, cameras) connected to your computer. From there you can see how many documents are in the printing queue, can set the paper size for printing, add or delete a printer, set a default printer or add & remove other devices etc.

Default programs: A default program is the program that Windows uses when you open a particular type of file, such as a music file, an image, or a webpage. For example, if you have more than one web browser installed on your computer, you can choose one of them to be the default browser directly.

Help and support: Windows provides a help system that most software developers use to provide immediate help to the users of their Windows applications. The help is displayed by pressing F1 or selecting the Help menu in the application. The help windows can remain on screen so that you can try  things out better works while you read the instructions. 

 

 • Maximize/Minimize/Close Buttons:

These buttons are located at the top right corner of our opened documents, and the area used to close, minimize or maximize the document window. They help us jump from one task to another fast and let us decide either we want to close an application or resize it’s area on the screen or just hide it for a few moments.

• My Computer:

This is a system icon. When we double click on My Computer, We find ourselves looking at a window where we can navigate between Computer Drives and Control Panel tools. It also gives us access to different drives on our computer and the data which lies in those drives.

• My Computer Right Click Menu:

When we right-click on My Computer or any other file or folder, We get a menu where we can look into different options related to that specific file, for example, Properties, etc.

• Recycle Bin:

This is a system icon. When we delete a file or folder, It goes into the Recycle Bin from where It can either be restored or permanently deleted from the Computer. Once, a file or folder is deleted from the Recycle Bin, It is very difficult to recover it again. Therefore, the utility of the recycle bin is very essential to use properly if you deal with important documents and files on a day to day basis.

• Shortcut:

A shortcut creates a button or icon which typically is located on the Desktop. By clicking on this Shortcut, We can quickly open the document or application of which it is a shortcut. It helps us save the tedious task of going to the main directory again and again and saves our time.

• Mouse Functions:

The mouse is an input device which is essential in the working of a computer. It performs several important functions on Windows like Scrolling, Right and Left Clicks, etc. It performs another very important function of modern windows which is pointing towards different things and giving special instructions whenever needed.

• Highlight:

When we have opened a document, we can easily highlight the required portion of our document by using Mouse. It is essential for documents and helps keep track of useful information.

• Copy/Cut/Paste:

These options are one of the most essential components of Windows. The copy is used to copy a portion of a document from one document to another or a file or folder from one location to another. The paste is used to paste the copied item on the desired location. While Cut is used to move an item to our desired location in the Computer.

• Toolbar:

The toolbar is a simple row where we can see different options to customize the look of our opened window. It has two types, Formatting Toolbar, and Standard Toolbar. The standard toolbar consists of options like new documents, save a document, etc. While Formatting Toolbar consists of options like font size, font type, etc.

• Drag/Drop:

Dragging an object means to move an object (file or folder) from one location to another and when we reach our desired location, then we can drop the object to that location. It is one of the most used features of windows as you have to move files from one location to another.

• File Extensions:

File extensions are used to define the type of the file. For example an image file will have an extension of .jpg, .jpeg and a Word document will have an extension .docx, .xls, .txt etc. You could have different types of extensions and these extensions help you decide the type of software that will be used to access these files.

• Multitasking:

The term Multitasking means to run more than one file or application on Windows at the same time. It is a very important component of Windows which saves our time as well as allow us to perform more tasks at the same time.

• Virtual Keyboard:

A virtual keyboard is a software through which we can see a keyboard on our screen and use it by our Mouse. It is mostly used in the cases when your keyboard is not working properly or you use windows on a touch device.

• Disk Drives:

Disk Drives are drives used to store applications and files. Hard Drives and Floppy Drives are used for this purpose. They are very important for your instructions as well as your hardware to work properly.

• Defragmenting Hard Drives:

Defragmenting a Drive means to erase all the data from that drive. It is also another important component of windows as users need to clean up their hard drives from time to time and it also comes as a built-in utility.

• Icons:

Icon is a small graphical representation of a program or file. When we double-click an icon, the associated file or program will be opened. For example, if we were to double-click on the My Computer icon, opens in Windows Explorer for displaying. The Icons are a component of GUI operating systems, including Apple macOS X and Microsoft Windows. Icons can help users to quickly identify the type of file represented in the icon.

Types of icon:

System Icons:

System Icons are displayed along left edge of screen. These icons are created automatically by windows during its installation. Example of some system icons are My Computer, Recycle Bin, My Documents, Internet Explorer etc.

Shortcut Icons:

These are the icons with small arrows in the lower left corner. A shortcut icons provides easy access to some objects on our systems, such as a program, a document or a printer. The shortcut icons only contain information about the location of the object but not the object itself.

• Shut down:

Here is an overview of the six different options Windows users have when they go to shut down their systems.

1- Shut down:

Choosing to shut down your computer will begin the process of turning your computer off. If you have any programs open, you will be asked if you want to force close them, and normally be given a short amount of time before they are automatically closed and the computer turned off.

If you are working on documents, or something that requires you to save your progress, it will not be saved when you allow the programs to be force closed. Therefore, when you shut your system down, it is a good idea to save all work before you actually do so.

2-  Log off:

Logging off will cause all of your open programs to be closed and will bring you to the Windows login screen. You will then be able to log in as another user if there are other profiles on your computer.

The key here is that logging off is just like shutting down. Your programs will be closed without any changes made being saved. You will get a warning about this before your computer logs you off, but it is a good idea to save your work before you log off.

3- Switch Users:

Switching Users is similar to logging off, in that when you press this option you are taken to the Windows login screen and able to log in as a different user. The main difference here is that your programs will not be closed, remaining open.

If you have more than one user who uses your computer, and each has their own profile, switching users is a good option. However, if one user decides to shut down the computer, all other programs, regardless of which user has these open, will also be closed. So, it is always recommended to save your work before switching users in case you lose your work.

4- Restart:

Restarting your computer is similar to shutting it down. All open programs are closed and your computer shuts down, before restarting after a couple of seconds. You are then taken to either the login screen (if you have more than one user), or directly to the main desktop.

Again, it is a good idea to save your work before you restart.

5- Sleep:

This is sometimes called standby mode, and is similar to pausing a tv show or movie. When you put the computer to sleep, all programs and processes are halted but remain open – stored in the computer’s memory. When you wake the computer up, all processes and programs will be open and usable pretty much right away.

Putting your computer to sleep is ideal if you are going to step away from your computer for a short amount of time, but it generally isn’t a good idea to let your computer sleep for more than a few hours, as your computer may crash. Note: When you put your computer to sleep, any work done since you last saved is not saved, rather it will remain on the screen and open instead.

6- Hibernate:

Hibernate is similar to sleep mode. The main difference is that all programs and work are saved. The computer essentially turns off, with some components such as the memory still switched on. When you wake your computer from hibernation, all programs you had open will reopen in the same state you left them. This is ideal for if you are not going to be using your computer for an extended period of time, yet want programs to remain open.

The different versions of shutdown have their uses, but whichever you choose, it is always a good idea to save your work regularly just in case something goes wrong. If you would like to learn more about the versatility and features of Windows, please contact us today.

Important key stroke:

Here is a list of commonly used short-cut keys that can provide an easier and quicker method of using computer programs:

List of basic computer shortcut keys:

• Alt + F: File menu options in the current program.
• Alt + E: Edits options in the current program.
• F1: Universal help (for any sort of program).
• Ctrl + A: Selects all text.
• Ctrl + X: Cuts the selected item.
• Ctrl + Del: Cut selected item.
• Ctrl + C: Copy the selected item.
• Ctrl + Insert: Copy the selected item.
• Ctrl + V: Paste the selected item.
• Shift + Insert: Paste the selected item.
• Home: Takes the user to the beginning of the current line.
• Ctrl + Home: Go to the beginning of the document.
• End: Go to the end of the current line.
• Ctrl + End:  Go to the end of a document.
• Shift + Home: Highlight from current position to beginning of the line.
• Shift + End: Highlight from current position to end of the line.
• Ctrl + (Left arrow): Move one word to the left at a time.
• Ctrl + (Right arrow: Move one word to the right at a time.
• Alt + Tab : Switch between open applications.
• Alt + Shift + Tab: Switch backward between open applications.
• Alt + Print Screen: Create screenshot for the current program.
• Ctrl + Alt + Del: Reboot/Windows task manager.
• Ctrl + Esc: Bring up the start menu.
• Alt + Esc: Switch between applications on the taskbar.
• F2: Rename selected icon.
• F3: Start find from the desktop.
• F4: Open the drive selection when browsing.
• F5: Refresh contents.
• Alt + F4: Close current open program.
• Ctrl + F4: Close window in program.
• Ctrl + Plus Key: Automatically adjust widths of all columns in Windows Explorer.
• Alt + Enter: Open properties window of selected icon or program.
• Shift + F10: Simulate right-click on selected item.
• Shift + Del: Delete programs/files permanently.
• Holding Shift During Boot up: Boot safe mode or bypass system files.
• Holding Shift During Boot up: When putting in an audio CD, will prevent CD Player from playing.
• Windows key:  Appearing start menu.
• Windows key + I: Open Settings app.
• Windows key + E: Open File Explorer.
• Windows key + A: Open Action center.
• Windows key + D: Display and hide the desktop.
• Windows key + L: Lock device
• Windows key + M: Minimize window.
• Windows key + Shift + M: Maximize window.
• Windows key + V: Open Clipboard bin.
• Windows key + Period (.) or semicolon (;): Open emoji panel.
• Windows key + PrtScn: Capture full screenshot in the "Screenshots" folder.
• Windows key + Shift + S: Capture part of the screen with Snip & Sketch.
• Windows key + Left arrow key: Snap app or window left.
• Windows key + Right arrow key: Snap app or window right.

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16- MICROSOFT DOS

The Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) is an operating system developed for PCs with x86 microprocessors. It is a command-line-based system, where all commands are entered in text form and there is no graphical user interface.

MS-DOS was the most commonly used member of the family of disk operating systems. It was the main choice as an operating system for IBM PC-compatible computer systems during the 1980s to mid-1990s. MS-DOS was gradually replaced by system's with graphical user interfaces, particularly Microsoft Windows.

MS-DOS was originally called 86-DOS. It was written by Tim Patterson (considered the father of DOS) and owned by Seattle Computer Products. Microsoft bought 86-DOS for $75,000, licensed the software and released it with an IBM PC as MS-DOS 1.0 in 1982. MS-DOS was originally designed to run on any computer with an Intel 8086 processor, but the various hardware versions on these computers made compatibility difficult. As a result, Microsft provided hardware equipment manufacturers with a development kit that could be used to tune the MS-DOS operating system for the computer's specific hardware. As a result, there were many versions of MS-DOS. There were also compatibility issues with MS-DOS and IBM where some machines were compatible with MS-DOS but not IBM. These computers could only run programs that were written for MS-DOS and did not depend on any of IBM's peripheral architecture.

The job of MS-DOS is to establish a connection between computer hardware and software. MS-DOS is loaded into the computer’s memory when the computer is powered on. 

MS-DOS SYSTEM ESSENTIAL FILES:

It creates the appropriate environment for managing and handling files with:

1. IO.SYS (or IBMBIO.COM): This contains the system initialization code and builtin device drivers.
2. MSDOS.SYS (or IBMDOS.COM): This contains the DOS kernel.
3. COMMAND.COM: This is the command interpreter.
4. AUTOEXEC.BAT: This is run by the default shell (usually COMMAND.COM) to execute commands at startup.
5. CONFIG.SYS: This contains statements to configure DOS and load device drivers.

MS-DOS is a single-user operating system. It works on “Command Driven Interface” i.e. it is a Single-Tasking operating system.

MS-DOS VERSIONS:

The following table highlights the evolution of MS-DOS over the years.

Date	Version	Primary developer	Notable introduction	IBM hardware
August 1980	86-DOS 0.10	Tim Paterson	First Seattle Computer release
August 1981	PC DOS 1.0	Microsoft	First IBM release	IBM Personal Computer
May 1982	PC DOS 1.1	Microsoft	Double-sided disks	Upgraded IBM Personal Computer
March 1983	PC DOS 2.0	Microsoft	Hard disk drive, subdirectories, device drivers	IBM Personal Computer XT
November 1983	PC DOS 2.1	Microsoft	Half-height disk drives, ROM cartridges	IBM PCjr
August 1984	PC DOS 3.0	Microsoft	Support for larger disks	IBM Personal Computer/AT
April 1985	PC DOS 3.1	Microsoft	Local area networking support	IBM PC Network
March 1986	PC DOS 3.2	Microsoft	31⁄2-inch 720 KB floppy support	Token Ring network IBM PC Convertible
April 1987	PC DOS 3.3	IBM	31⁄2-inch 1.44 MB floppy support, extended partitions	IBM Personal System/2
November 1987	MS-DOS 3.31	Compaq	Hard disk partitions over 32 MB
May 1988	DR DOS 3.31	Digital Research	ROMable DOS
July 1988	IBM DOS 4.0	IBM	DOS Shell, EMS 4.0 usage
April 1990	DR DOS 5.0	Digital Research	Memory management
June 1991	MS-DOS 5.0	Microsoft	MS-DOS Editor, QBasic, first retail upgrade
September 1991	DR DOS 6.0	Digital Research	Disk compression (AddStor's SuperStor)
March 1993	MS-DOS 6.0	Microsoft	Disk utilities, DoubleSpace disk compression
June 1993	PC DOS 6.1	IBM	First IBM release after split with Microsoft, E
September 1993	MS-DOS 6.2	Microsoft	Improved version of DoubleSpace
February 1994	MS-DOS 6.21	Microsoft	DoubleSpace removed due to legal injunction
April 1994	PC DOS 6.3	IBM	SuperStor/DS disk compression
June 1994	MS-DOS 6.22	Microsoft	Last Microsoft release; DriveSpace disk compression
April 1995	PC DOS 7.0	IBM	Memory optimizations, Stacker disk compression, Rexx

MS-DOS COMMAND PROMPT:

The DOS command prompt is a critical part of the Microsoft Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) command line interface. It is the fundamental setting for the interface, where the prompt sets the stage for executing command lines of code. Up until the emergence of new Windows-oriented graphical interfaces, the DOS command prompt was the most common way to interact with the personal computer. To start DOS commands using, should open the command prompt on screen by the following steps:

• To click on Start Button appearing left side in Taskbar.
• Go to Accessories option.
• Click on Prompt. 

A dialog box appears on the screen with DOS prompt.

C:\> _

This is called the command prompt or DOS prompt. The flashing underscore next to the command prompt is called the cursor. The cursor shows where the command you type will appear.

MS-DOS COMMANDS:

DOS Commands are divided into 2 types:

1- Internal Commands

An internal command is an MS-DOS command that is stored in the system memory and loaded from the command.com. The illustration shows how commands contained within command.com are part of the command.com file.

2- External Commands

These external commands are for performing advanced tasks and they do need some external file support as they are not stored in COMMAND.COM.

There are also Batch commands or Batch files which are text files that contain a list of internal and/or external commands which are executed in sequence when the batch file is executed. AUTOEXEC.BAT gets executed automatically on Booting.

In MS-DOS, keyboard shortcuts involving handy ones like Functional keys, arrows, pipe character (” | “), asterisk (*), ?, [] and ESC are of great help for recalling to searching to clearing command line etc., Here are few of them:

• UP (↑) and DOWN (↓) arrows recall previously entered commands.
• ESC clears the present command line. It abandons the currently construct command and the next prompt appears.
• F1 or → retypes one character at a time from the last command entry from the current cursor position.
• F2 retypes all characters from the last command entry up to the one identical to your next keystroke. It asks you to enter char to copy up to and retypes the last command up to that char.
• F3 retypes all remaining characters from the last command entry.
• F4 stores all characters beginning at the first match with your next keystroke and ending with the last command entry.
• F5 or F8 keys give all the previously typed commands.
• F6 places a special end-of-file code at the end of the currently open file. Sometimes referred to as Ctrl+z or ^z.
• F7 key displays command history and ALT+F7/ESC hides it.
• F9 is used to select a command by number. Just enter the command number and it fetches the command line for you.
• Pipe character (” | “) combines several series of commands or programs inter-dependent.
• Name enclosed within [] indicate a sub-directory.
• Asterisk (*) is used to represent zero or more any characters.
• ? is used to present zero or single character.

INTERNAL COMMANDS:

Below are examples of internal commands in MS-DOS and executing on Prompt:

VER: 

Its full name is VERSION, displays the DOS version number for the version of DOS currently active.

C:\>VER     enterkey

VOL:

The VOL (VOLUME) command is used to display the volume label. It is not used to add or change the volume label on a disk.

C:\>VOL     enterkey

DATE:

It Displays current date and setting  provides a way to reset the date.

C:\>DATE   enterkey

TIME:

Time command Displays current time and setting of system clock to provides a way for you to reset the time.

C:\>TIME    enterkey

CLS:

Clears (erases) the screen. Erases all characters and graphics from the screen; however, it does not change the currently-set screen attributes. to clear the screen of everything but the command prompt and the cursor.

C:\>CLS     enterkey

DIR:

The DIR command displays information about files and directories and how much disk space is available. By default, it displays the name, size, and last modification time of every file in the current directory.

C:\>DIR     enterkey

DIR/P:

Displays to all directories and files as page wise in a disk. It pauses when the screen is full. A information displays under the screen as "Press any key to continue..." press any key to display another screen full of data.

C:\>DIR/P     enterkey

DIR/W:

Displays to all directories and files as width wise in a disk.

C:\>DIR/W     enterkey

DIR/P/W:

Displays to all directories and files as page wise and width wise in a disk. It pauses when the screen is full. A information displays under the screen as "Press any key to continue..." press any key to display another screen full of data.

C:\>DIR/P/W    enterkey

CHANGE THE DRIVE:

To access another drive, type the drive's letter, followed by ":". For instance, if you wanted to change the drive from "C:" to "D:", you should type "d:" and then press Enter on your keyboard.

C:\>D:      enterkey

D:\>E:      enterkey

E:\>F:       enterkey

F:\>C:       enterkey

C:\>

MD:

Creates a directory or sub-directory. Command extensions, which are enabled by default, allow you to use a single md command to create intermediate directories in a specified path. This command is the same as the mkdir command.

C:\>D:      enterkey

D:\>MD RDICT    enterkey

CD:

The cd command, also known as chdir (change directory), is a command-line shell command used to change the current working directory in various operating systems.

D:\>CD RDICT    enterkey

D:\RDICT>

CD.. & CD\:

To go up a directory level you are currently working, you can type CD.. and to go to the root level directory from any directory, you can type CD\.

D:\RDICT>CD..       enterkey

OR

D:\RDICT>CD\        enterkey

D:\>

RD:

RMDIR or RD command removes directories that are empty. To determine if a directory is empty, use the DIR command to display the directory`s contents.

D:\>CD RDICT     enterkey

D:\RDICT>DIR     enterkey

D:\RDICT>CD..    enterkey

D:\>RD RDICT     enterkey

D:\>DIR                 enterkey

COPY CON:

Copy con command is used to create a file. The name of the file, which is to be created, is written after the copy con leaving one space in between and press Enter key. For this, take some step:

Type Copy Con Monu and press Enter.
Type whatever is to be typed in the file.
Press F6 function key or CTRL + Z keys ‘^Z’ will be displayed on the screen, which indicates that the file is complete.
Press Enter and after that the DOS will save the file and will display the message ‘1 File(s) copied.

D:\>MD RDICT    enterkey
D:\>CD RDICT     enterkey
D:\RDICT>COPY CON RDICT.TXT    enterkey
RDICT COMPUTER EDUCATION CENTRE
NEW MARKET, BUS STAND, BHADAURA, GHAZIPUR (U.P.)
A COMPUTER INSTITUTE FOR BETTER LIFE IN YOUR BLOCK.
Ctrl+Z    enterkey

TYPE:

This command is used to view the contents of text file.

D:\RDICT>TYPE RDICT.TXT enterkey

COPY:

This command is used to copy of file from one place to another place. A copy of file is another file with the same contents.

D:\RDICT>COPY RDICT.TXT COMPUTER.TXT enterykey

D:\RDICT>DIR enterkey

REN:

This command is used to rename the file. In REN command two parameters are used. The first is the file we want to rename and the second is the new name for the file.

D:\RDICT>REN RDICT.TXT TEXT.TXT enterkey

D:\RDICT>DIR enterkey

DEL:

This command is used to erase the files which are no longer required.

D:\RDICT>DEL COMPUTER.TXT enterkey

D:\RDICT>DIR enterkey

TREE:

The tree command makes it very easy for you to locate files and folders using the command line. You can view how your directory is structured and where every file is located from your command prompt.

D:\RDICT>CD.. enterkey

D:\>C: enterkey

C:\>TREE enterkey

EXTERNAL COMMANDS:

These commands are stored in the computer list in the form of files. The external command is an MS-DOS command that is not included in command.com. External commands are commonly external either because they require large requirements or are not commonly used commands. The illustration shows each of the external commands are separate files. The external commands are loads in memory and then executes. Some example of external commands are given below:

APPEND, ARP, ASSIGN, AT, ATTRIB, BACKUP, BCDEDIT, BOOTSECT, CACLS, CHCP, CHKDSK, CHKNTFS, CHOICE, CIPHER, CLIP, COMP, COMPACT, CONVERT, DEBUG, DEFRAG, DELPART, DELTREE, DISKCOMP, DISKCOPY, DOSKEY, DOSSHELL, DRIVERQUERY, DUMPCHK, EDIT, EDLIN, EXPAND, EXTRACT, FASTHELP, FC, FCIV, FDISK, FIND, FORFILES, FORMAT,  FTP, GPUPDATE, GRAFTABL, HELP, HOSTNAME, ICACLS, IPCONFIG, LABEL, LOADFIX, LOGOFF,  MEM, MODE, MORE, MOVE,  MSAV, MSBACKUP, MSCDEX, MSCDEXNT, MWBACKUP, MSD, MSG, NBTSTAT, NET, NETSH, NETSTAT, NLSFUNC, NSLOOKUP, PATHPING, PING, POWER, POWERCFG, PRINT, REG, ROBOCOPY, ROUTE, RUNAS, SC, SCANDISK, SCANREG, SCHTASKS, SETVER, SFC, SHARE,  SHUTDOWN, SMARTDRV, SORT, SUBST, SYS, SYSTEMINFO, TASKKILL, TASKLIST, TELNET, TRACERT, TREE, TSKILL, UNDELETE, UNFORMAT, WMIC, XCOPY etc.

Also know about:

17-Microsoft Windows

 

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